eng
University of Tehran
Desert
2008-0875
2345-475X
2008-12-01
13
2
89
103
10.22059/jdesert.2008.36293
36293
مقاله پژوهشی
A synoptic study on seasonal patterns of wet and dry spells in midwest of Iran
F. Khoshakhlagh
1
R. Ouji
2
M. Jafarbeglou
3
Assistant professor, Faculty of Geography, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
MSc. Graduate in Physical Geography, Climatology
Scientific staff, Faculty of Geography, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
The effective patterns and mechanisms of synoptic systems during the wet and dry spells in Midwest of Iran(MWI) analyzed and discussed on seasonal scales from 1974 to 2003. Synoptic Analysis is based on synoptic chartson Sea Level Pressure (SLP), 850 and 500 Hpa levels. The results of synoptic analysis show that dry spells in MWIare mostly corresponded to Azores High (AZH) intensifying and its central movement to east and northeast of normalposition. Furthermore the Siberian High (SH) ridge is extended from northeast to Iran. The linkage between SH andAZH ridges through Iran, Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Arabic Peninsula lead to drought occurrence in the Middle Eastespecially Iran. The Sudan Low (SL) and Mediterranean Trough (MT) have a limited extend during drought periods(dry spells). The most important occurrence index of droughts in upper charts is reinforcing and extending northwardof Arabia South High (ASH) to Iran and Mesopotamia. This event is marked by a strong ridge in 500 Hpa charts overstudy area. The Circumpolar Vortex (CPV) is contracted to polar area during dry spells and expanded equatorward inwet spells. In Summarized SH extends during wet spells but dose not reach to Iran. In addition Mediterranean EastTrough (MET) reinforced and extended from 25°E to 40°E and its meridional expands reaches to the Red Sea (RS)and Sudan Low. The other result is that during wet and dry spells, the orientation of Blocking Highs ridges in thenorth of Caspian Sea and over Ural Mountain (UM) causes different climatic conditions in Iran.
https://jdesert.ut.ac.ir/article_36293_2837f281e0245e7da92616d76fef4990.pdf
synoptic climatology
Wet spell
Dry spells
Atmospheric action centers
Midwest of Iran
eng
University of Tehran
Desert
2008-0875
2345-475X
2008-12-01
13
2
105
115
10.22059/jdesert.2008.36294
36294
مقاله پژوهشی
An analysis of drought events for central plains of Iran through an employment of NOAA-AVHRR data
A. Shamsipour
1
S. AlaviPanah
2
H. Mohammadi
3
A. Azizi
4
F. Khoshakhlagh
5
Department of Climatology, Faculty of Geography, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Department of Cartography, Faculty of Geography, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Department of Climatology, Faculty of Geography, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Department of Climatology, Faculty of Geography, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Department of Climatology, Faculty of Geography, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Drought is a major problematic phenomenon for the mostly semi-arid country of Iran. The north centralregions of Iran (north of Esfahan and Ghom province) have suffered from severe droughts several times duringthe last three decades. The frequent occurrence of drought in these regions is due to low and inconsistentprecipitation, abnormally high temperatures, increases in surface albedo and evapotranspiration; especiallyduring spring. The surface characteristics of Kashan and Ghom regions consist of salty flats and sandy hillscovered by sparse vegetation. The average elevation of the area is 1987 mASL. In the present work, NOAAAVHRRdata have been employed to assess vegetation indices and environmental conditions in the study regionfor the years 1998 – 2004; which are then compared to actual ground data such as rainfall, temperature andrelative humidity for a detailed drought analysis. Spatial and temporal variations of meteorological droughts inKashan have been analyzed using Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) at annual and seasonal scales, and havebeen generated through GIS based interpolation. Vegetative and thermal drought indices have been calculatedusing NDVI, VCI, and TCI values derived from NOAA-AVHRR data. Results from applying remotely senseddata show that this area is generally of low vegetation index values. The artificial forests and farmlands at thefoothills of the mountains northwest of Kashan region showed relatively high vegetation index values. TCI andVCI generally show a good relationship with meteorological observations. According to the output of utilizationNDVI and VCI, 2000 and 2001 years were characteristic of drought conditions, while 2002 and 2004 did nonrepresent drought years. Since TCI index is completely dependent on surface temperature, the combined analysisof the May and April results were influenced by the low land surface temperatures experienced in April, andtherefore it was very different from the other indices i.e. NDVI and VCI. Therefore thermal IR channels can beemployed used to monitor drought conditions in the semi-arid and arid regions of Iran to assess these regions,environmental conditions.
https://jdesert.ut.ac.ir/article_36294_7a204777e6d684d28ae3432bbeeadbb3.pdf
Drought indices
Remotely Sensed Data
AVHRR-NOAA
NDVI
Central plains of Iran
eng
University of Tehran
Desert
2008-0875
2345-475X
2008-12-01
13
2
117
127
10.22059/jdesert.2008.36295
36295
مقاله پژوهشی
Analysis of relations between water erosion features and effective parameters on their intensity and spatial patterns (Case study: Baleghli chay watershed, Ardebil, Iran)
A. Esmaili
1
H. Ahmadi
jafari4@ut.ac.ir
2
S. Feiznia
hadi_memarian3@yahoo.com
3
J. Ghoddoussi
4
Ph.D. Candidate of Watershed Management, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
Professor, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
Professor, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
Scientific Member, Soil Conservation and Watershed Management Research Institute, Tehran, Iran
Soil erosion results from an interaction of several parameters, which vary in space and time. Awareness ofenvironmental changes and their impact on the intensity and spatial pattern of water erosion can effectively help inrecognition of erosional reactions versus the affecting factors. The aim of this paper is to describe the development ofa methodology based on present knowledge and available data, for evaluation of water erosion behavior and risk aswell as an estimation of soil erosion. Accordingly, based on the conducted research on different types of watererosion in some areas of Baleghli Chay Watershed, between two hydrometric gauging stations were studied, with anexclusion of erosion due to mass movements. Four major types of water erosion namely: sheet, rill, channel andstreambank which play a considerable role in sediment yields of the area, were separately studied. In order todetermine the inter-effects of erosive factors, the study was conducted using multivariate statistical tests. For eacherosion type, an individual model was then presented. The results indicated complex and different interactionsbetween the likelihood of water erosion and environmental changes in the study area. Sheet and rill erosions actdifferently from channel erosion while streambank erosion is completely different from others. Therefore, a study ofindividual types of water erosion can help in recognition of accelerating factors that effectively influence watererosion, and consequently to come up with appropriate models.
https://jdesert.ut.ac.ir/article_36295_641a6d529cfb21ec42d5c52bea7b0738.pdf
Water erosion
Erosion model
Watershed
Baleghli Chay
Ardebil
Iran
eng
University of Tehran
Desert
2008-0875
2345-475X
2008-12-01
13
2
129
136
10.22059/jdesert.2008.36296
36296
مقاله پژوهشی
The relationship between some physiological traits and salt tolerance in Pistachio genotypes
H. Moeinrad
1
Assistant professor, Islamic Azad University, Mashhad, Iran
To determine the relative salt tolerance and/or resistance in seedlings of pistachio genotypes, four pot experimentswere conducted. In experiments 1 and 2, the effects of salinity on growth indices were studid. Experiments were donein the form of split plot based on RCBD. In each experiment, mainplots consisted of different electrical conductivitiesof irrigation water (ECiws). In experiment 1, the seedlings of seven cultivars (cvs.) of Pistacia vera L. (Momtaz,Akbari, Kale-ghoochi, Owhadi, Ahmad-aghai, Sarakhs, Badami-riz) and also P. atlantica sub. Mutica (Baneh) wereallocated in subplots. In the second experiment, three cvs. of P. vera L. (Badami-riz,Momtaz and Owhadi) withdifferent salt tolerances were used. In order to determine the resistance of pistachio cvs. in respect to seedlingssurvival, experiment 3 was done. In experiment 3, salinity treatments continued upto 70% of leaf damaging inseedlings. In experiment 4, the effects of salinity on pistachio seedlings in regards to chlorophyll-meter figures andproline contents studied. Nevertheless, the ratio of damaged leaves, K/Na ratio and total dry weight was determined.In experiment 4, the relationship between some physiological traits and salt tolerance in pistachio genotypesdetermined. We observed that not only salt tolerance varies cv. to cv., but also it changes in different sources of agiven cv. In order to determine the salt tolerance of pistachio genotypes, the sensible traits (relative percent of totaldry weight and seedlings survival) were more reliable than traits such as K/Na ratio, chlorophyll meter figure, and/ora single physiological character as same as leaf proline content.
https://jdesert.ut.ac.ir/article_36296_b361c9845f7ac996d055931181dcfe06.pdf
Chlorophyll meter figure
growth indices
Pistachio
Proline content
Salt tolera Seedlings survivalnce and resistance
eng
University of Tehran
Desert
2008-0875
2345-475X
2008-12-01
13
2
137
146
10.22059/jdesert.2008.36297
36297
مقاله پژوهشی
Monitoring the occurrence of frost through an analysis of air masses in south west basins of Iran
E. Fattahi
ebfat20022@yahoo.com
1
K. Noohi
ebfat20023@yahoo.com
2
Atmospheric Science & Meteorological Research Center, Tehran, Iran
Atmospheric Science & Meteorological Research Center, Tehran, Iran
Frost is one of the atmospheric phenomena which seriously threaten crop production. It also causes numerousaccidents in mountainous roads. In this research the Spatial Synoptic Classification SSC method was employed toclassify the type of air masses. For the classification, such meteorological data as: temperature, dew point, mean sealevel pressure, cloudiness, direction and speed of wind were collected for a period of 45 years from 1961 to 2005. For aclassification of air masses a discernment method was applied and while typical characteristics of seed days being usedas input for this discernment function method. The results indicated that, spring season air masses, Dry Polar (DP) airmasses, Moist Polar (MP) and Moist Moderate (MM) air masses have contributed most to the occurrence of advectionfrosts respectively. Dry Polar air masses bore the lowest temperature and dew point, along with northerly and easterlywind components and a clear sky. These air masses caused the occurrence of the most severe and most extensiveadvection frosts in south west basins of Iran.
https://jdesert.ut.ac.ir/article_36297_2d992e17649f46fe77681c62c5c5507f.pdf
Air masses
Spatial Synoptic Classification SSC
Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
Frosts
Iran
eng
University of Tehran
Desert
2008-0875
2345-475X
2008-12-01
13
2
147
154
10.22059/jdesert.2008.36298
36298
مقاله پژوهشی
Proposed policies for integrated watershed management in order to combat desertification in Euphrates and Tigris basin
T. Shamekhi
1
H. Mohammadi Kangarani
2
J. Blanchez
3
Associated Professor, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
Ph.D. Student, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
Forestry Officer, Forest Economics Service, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Desertification of the arid and semi-arid lands of the world has been proceeding for more than a thousand years.Human-induced degradation in these areas is regularly cited as one of the principal causes of desertification.Euphrates and Tigris Basin as the case study of this research in some aspects is almost unique in the world. But thisbasin has been confronted to progressive desertification. This research was done for proposing appropriate policies interms of main driving forces in order to combat desertification in this basin. So qualitative analyses of data banks ofthe countries involved in this basin have been collected by FAO consultants, showed desertification in Euphrates andTigris Basin is characterized by climate factors and human activities; water scarcity and unequal distribution of waterare major climate factors. The main human activities are overgrazing of rangelands, deforestation, and land usechanges. Because of negative impacts of human activities on climate factors and also deep dependency of livelihoodin this basin, there is an urgent need to plan an integrated watershed management in order to managing people, water,forests, and range lands together for combating this progressive desertification.
https://jdesert.ut.ac.ir/article_36298_0fb906ba37661ae3f9be496a72535ff7.pdf
Desertification
Proposed Policies
integrated watershed management
Institutional framework
Human
activities
Climate factors
eng
University of Tehran
Desert
2008-0875
2345-475X
2008-12-01
13
2
155
165
10.22059/jdesert.2008.36299
36299
مقاله پژوهشی
Catchment-scale spatial variability analysis of soil hydro-physical properties in a semi-arid region of Iran
H. Motaghian
1
J. Mohammadi
j-mohammadi2@agr.sku.ac.ir
2
A. Karimi
3
M.Sc. student, Shahrekord University, Shahrekord, Iran
Associate professor, Shahrekord University, Shahrekord, Iran
Assistant professor, Shahrekord University, Shahrekord, Iran
Soil hydrau-physical data are important for many hydrological modelings. They are the main variables controllingthe key processes such as water and chemicals movement and transport in the soil profiles. This study was conductedin order to analyze the spatial distribution of selected soil hydrau-physcial characteristics including infiltration rate(IR), saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks), bulk density (BD), clay, silt, and sand content. The study area wassampled on a pseudo-regular sampling scheme with initial grid spacing of 1 km during June and July 2007.Maximum coefficient of variation (CV) was found for IR (72%) and Ks (67%). While, BD showed a minimum CV of9%. Statistical analyses illustrated that there is a significant difference (P<0.05) in the mean values of IR in twodifferent landforms, i.e., plateaus and alluvial plains. However, different land uses including rangelands and dryfarming revealed no significant differences in the mean values of measured IR. The contrasting results were obtainedfor Ks. Geostatistical analyses revealed that the spatially dependent stochastic component (structure) waspredominant over the nugget variance (noise). The developed and modeled variograms of each variable were used ingenerating kriged maps. As expected, these maps exploited spatial similarities among soil properties.
https://jdesert.ut.ac.ir/article_36299_c5c8e03ab169a9e6eae112222fac4de2.pdf
Infiltration rate
Kriging
Saturated hydraulic conductivity
Variogram
eng
University of Tehran
Desert
2008-0875
2345-475X
2008-12-01
13
2
167
174
10.22059/jdesert.2008.36300
36300
مقاله پژوهشی
Wind erosion measurement on fallow lands of Yazd-Ardakan plain, Iran
H. Azimzadeh
1
M. Ekhtesasi
2
H. Refahi
3
H. Rohipour
4
M. Gorji
5
Academic staff member, Natural Resources and Desert Studies faculty & ADRI, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
Assistant professor, Natural Resources and Desert Studies faculty & ADRI, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
Professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
Assistant professor, Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Desert Division, Academic Staff Member, Tehran, Iran
Assistant professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
Wind erosion is a significant problem on 20 million ha of Iran, especially in central plains and coastal areas. Winderosion samplers, meteorological equipments and measurement procedure have been developed over the last twocenturies to measure the particles moving across the field in modes of creep, saltation and suspension. In recentresearch as the first technical measurement in Iran, wind erosion was measured with these advanced procedures. Fielddata was collected from a small (1.9 ha), square, fallow field with nonerodible boundaries. Wind erosionmeasurement equipment containing 14 clusters with samplers at 0.05, 0.10, 0.25, and 0.50 and 1.0m above the soilsurface and a 4× surface creep sampler (0 to 0.02m height by 0.005m wide) was arranged in a circular pattern. Thesampling cluster consisted of an array of five samplers each attached to a pivoting wind vane and each mounted at adifferent height on a central pole. This permitted field erosion data collection regardless of the wind direction andprovided a range of field lengths with a minimum number of sampler locations. A combination equation of power andexponential functions expressed the variation of transition material to a height of 2m. An exponential modeldescribed the horizontal distribution of transported soil in the field. Twelve single events were recorded and analyzedbetween May 2006 and May 2007. Several inherent soil properties such as soil texture, organic matter and calciumcarbonate content affect the erodibility of soil and change very slowly in research time. Other properties, such assurface roughness and aggregate crust strength are temporal and change rapidly in response to climatic conditions.Total soil mass transported across the fallow field was measured at 220.93 kg/m per year and soil loss at 1.356 kg/m2(13.56 ton/ha) per year.
https://jdesert.ut.ac.ir/article_36300_e9749d709dea51e95060703148727006.pdf
BSNE
Iran
Measurement
Near Surface Sampler
Wind Erosion
eng
University of Tehran
Desert
2008-0875
2345-475X
2008-12-01
13
2
175
179
10.22059/jdesert.2008.36301
36301
مقاله پژوهشی
Effects of range condition on the temporal diet selection by goats in steppe rangelands of Iran
N. Baghestani-Maybodi
1
M. Jankju-Borzelabad
2
M. Taghi Zare
3
Assistant Professor, Yazd Agricultural and Natural resources Research Center, Yazd, Iran
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
Senior Expert of Range Management, Yazd Agricultural and Natural resources Research Center, Yazd, Iran
One of the key factors in managing a rangeland is to determine the relative preference of its major plant species by thegrazing livestock. Preference value of each plant species is affected by plant type, companion plants, availability byanimals, phenological stage, climate condition, and the livestock species. We investigated the grazing behaviour of anative goat (Garizi) in the steppe rangelands of Iran, from May to November 2004. The study was conducted within oroutside of an enclosure, representing a Good Condition (GC) or a Poor Condition (PC) rangeland, respectively. Flocks ofsix goats were selected randomly and their grazing behaviour was monitored by chronometers. Grazing preference wasconsidered as the time goats had spent for grazing each plant species. The grazing season was divided into 4 grazingperiods, 45 days each. Data recording in the GC and PC sites was repeated 3 times during each grazing period. Theexperiment was designed as the completely randomized blocks. In the GC site, grazing pressure on the perennial grassStipa barbata and the perennial chenopod Salsola rigida was low at the beginning of the grazing period, but it wasincreased towards the end of the grazing season. In the PC site, the main grazing pressure was on noxious plants such asScariola orientalis, Launaea acanthoides, and Cousinia deserti. For both GC and PC sites, the time of grazing hadsignificant influences on relative abundances of annual plants and plant litter, which subsequently changed diet selectionby the Garizi goat.
One of the key factors in managing a rangeland is to determine the relative preference of its major plant species by thegrazing livestock. Preference value of each plant species is affected by plant type, companion plants, availability byanimals, phenological stage, climate condition, and the livestock species. We investigated the grazing behaviour of anative goat (Garizi) in the steppe rangelands of Iran, from May to November 2004. The study was conducted within oroutside of an enclosure, representing a Good Condition (GC) or a Poor Condition (PC) rangeland, respectively. Flocks ofsix goats were selected randomly and their grazing behaviour was monitored by chronometers. Grazing preference wasconsidered as the time goats had spent for grazing each plant species. The grazing season was divided into 4 grazingperiods, 45 days each. Data recording in the GC and PC sites was repeated 3 times during each grazing period. Theexperiment was designed as the completely randomized blocks. In the GC site, grazing pressure on the perennial grassStipa barbata and the perennial chenopod Salsola rigida was low at the beginning of the grazing period, but it wasincreased towards the end of the grazing season. In the PC site, the main grazing pressure was on noxious plants such asScariola orientalis, Launaea acanthoides, and Cousinia deserti. For both GC and PC sites, the time of grazing hadsignificant influences on relative abundances of annual plants and plant litter, which subsequently changed diet selectionby the Garizi goat.
https://jdesert.ut.ac.ir/article_36301_4f1571664a4e89f9a87f626adfc2fb83.pdf
preference value
Arid rangelands
Garizi goat
Yazd
Iran
eng
University of Tehran
Desert
2008-0875
2345-475X
2008-12-01
13
2
181
191
10.22059/jdesert.2008.36302
36302
مقاله پژوهشی
Monthly runoff forecasting by means of artificial neural networks (ANNs)
A. Kalteh
1
P. Hjorth
2
Department of Range and Watershed Management, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Guilan, Somehsara, Iran
Department of Water Resources Engineering, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22 100, Lund, Sweden
Over the last decade or so, artificial neural networks (ANNs) have become one of the most promising tools formodelling hydrological processes such as rainfall runoff processes. However, the employment of a single model doesnot seem to be an appropriate approach for modelling such a complex, nonlinear, and discontinuous process thatvaries in space and time. For this reason, this study aims at decomposing the process into different clusters based onself-organizing map (SOM) ANN approach, and thereafter modelling different clusters into outputs using separatefeed-forward multilayer perceptron (MLP) and supervised self-organizing map (SSOM) ANN models. Specifically,three different SOM models have been employed in order to cluster the input patterns into two, three, and fourclusters respectively so that each cluster in each model corresponds to certain physics of the process underinvestigation and thereafter modelling of the input patterns in each cluster into corresponding outputs using feedforwardMLP and SSOM ANN models. The employed models were developed on two different watersheds, Iranianand Canadian. It was found that although the idea of decomposition based on SOM is highly persuasive, our resultsindicate that there is a need for more principled procedure in order to decompose the process. Moreover, according tothe modelling results the SSOM can be considered as an alternative approach to the feed-forward MLP.
https://jdesert.ut.ac.ir/article_36302_6a88f0280d941faa42e9a2479276e485.pdf
Artificial Neural Networks
forecasting
Monthly
Rainfall-runoff
Runoff
Self-organizing Map
eng
University of Tehran
Desert
2008-0875
2345-475X
2008-12-01
13
2
193
202
10.22059/jdesert.2008.36303
36303
مقاله پژوهشی
A land covers classification system for environment assessment in semi-arid regions of Iran
A. Keshtkar
1
H. Keshtkar
2
Ph.d. Student of Watershed Management, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
M.S. in Range Management, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
Land degradation is a major danger which restricting different areas of Iran. Systematic description of the environmentfor detection of environmental changes and the human-related causes and responses is essential in land cover changestudy. Use of land cover data allow detection of where certain changes occur, what type of change, as well as how theland is changing. Existing systems for classification of land cover is limited in the storage of the number of classes and isoften internally inconsistent. Therefore, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), developed theland cover classification system (LCCS), a comprehensive parametric classification based upon systematic description ofclasses using a set of independent quantifiable diagnostic criteria. With this approach land cover change detectionbecomes possible at the level of conversion of a class, whereas modification within a certain class type becomesimmediately identifiable by a difference in classifier, or through the use of additional classifiers as is shown in a series ofexamples illustrating the application of the approach to primarily vegetated areas. Our study showed this approach ismatch with exist information and dates for land cover mapping in Iran.
https://jdesert.ut.ac.ir/article_36303_563e6069ba8a197e02bcce483ed26f64.pdf
Boolean formula
Classifier
Degradation
LCCS method
environment
eng
University of Tehran
Desert
2008-0875
2345-475X
2008-12-01
13
2
203
210
10.22059/jdesert.2008.36304
36304
مقاله پژوهشی
Evaluation of the effects of industrial wastewater on soil properties and land desertification
M. Dastorani
1
M. Hakimzadeh
2
S. Kalantari
3
Assistant professor, Faculty of Natural Resources, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
Assistant professor, Faculty of Natural Resources, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
Senior expert of arid land management, Yazd, Iran
During past decades, increased wastewater production by human activities intensified the problem of wastewater usewithout causing undesirable impacts on the environment and human life. However, practice of wastewater use inirrigation crops and green spaces needs careful control because of the potential presence of unwanted constituents such asheavy metals and organic contaminants. This research was designed to evaluate the effects of industrial wastewater onsoil properties in Yazd, Iran. For this purpose, two plots were prepared and irrigated for five years, one with industrialwastewater and the other with local groundwater. Finally, soil samples collected from both plots were analyzed inlaboratory and important factors and elements including EC, pH, SAR, K, N, P, Ca, Pb, Fe, Cd, CaCO3 and OC (organiccarbon) which are important in soil degradation and land desertification were determined. According to the resultsobtained from this research it should be reported that this type of wastewater may cause soil degradation due to increasingSAR, EC, pH and Pb and also decreasing N, K and OC. It is clear that soil degradation is the main factor which causesand accelerates the process of desertification.
https://jdesert.ut.ac.ir/article_36304_30af44c7fb33632ef1c9ff8280a6a24b.pdf
Industrial Wastewater
Irrigation
Water Reuse
Land desertification
Soil degradation